Сборник текстов и заданий по английскому языку на тему «История архитектуры. Архитектура Двуречья и Древнего Ирана» (для студентов отделения «Архитектура»)

Федеральное государственное автономное образовательное учреждение

высшего образования

«Балтийский федеральный университет имени Иммануила Канта» (БФУ им. И. Канта)

Университетский колледж

 

 

 

 

Королева М.Э.

 

 

 

 

 

 

ИНОСТРАННЫЙ ЯЗЫК В ПРОФЕССИОНАЛЬНОЙ ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ

 

 

Учебное пособие

                         Сборник текстов и заданий к ним по английскому языку

(История архитектуры. Архитектура Двуречья и Древнего Ирана)

 

для студентов специальности 07.02.01 Архитектура

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Калининград 2022

Автор: Королева Мария Эдуардовна

 

 

 

Королева М.Э. Сборник текстов и заданий к ним по английскому языку: учебное пособие по дисциплине «Иностранный язык в профессиональной деятельности» для студентов специальности 07.02.01 «Архитектура» – Калининград: ФГАОУ ВО

«БФУ им. И Канта» Университетский колледж, 2022. – 37 с.

 

 

 

Рассмотрено и рекомендовано к печати на заседании предметно-цикловой комиссии общих гуманитарных и социально-экономических дисциплин, протокол № 3 от 11.11.2022 г.

 

Рассмотрено и рекомендовано к печати на заседании методической комиссии Университетского колледжа ФГАОУ ВО «БФУ им. И Канта», протокол № 2 от 15.12.2022 г.

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

 

BEGINNING OF ARCHITECTURE

The city is almost the defining characteristic of civilization. It is a place where people live and work cooperatively, producing food to sustain not only themselves, but “specialists”—artisans, artists, architects, scribes, administrators, and priests—who shape a unique culture. The story of architecture therefore begins with the first cities. There are many theories about how and when civilization—and architecture with it— began. All need to be prefaced with the word “perhaps” because we are unlikely to ever be sure why people first settled and began to build on a heroic scale, with artistry beyond craft. However, most archaeologists agree that urban life evolved in the Mid- dle East long before the first cities of Central America and China, and that the location of this giant leap forward was Mesopotamia—an area roughly equivalent to modern Iraq. Mesopotamia—the land bounded by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (the name means “between the rivers” in Greek)—was essentially a dry land; its position be- tween the two mighty rivers, however, allowed for easy irrigation of the desert, where reliable native grasses—barley and wheat— could be grown as crops. Fish and wild- fowl were also plentiful, allowing settlers to build up the surpluses of food on which the beginnings of urban civilization depended.

 

Answer the questions:

1.What is the defining characteristic of civilization? 2.When does the history of architecture begin?

3.Where did urban life first appear? 4.Where was Mesopotamia located?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

The city is almost the defining…

… begins with the first cities.

All need to be prefaced with the word "perhaps”…

… equivalent to modern Iraq.

Mesopotamia—the land bounded by… could be grown as crops.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the origin of architecture, place and time, its forms.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

                             BUILDING COMMUNITIES IN MESOPOTAMIA

Urban settlement was driven on by agricultural success and technological devel- opment. From around 3500BCE, bronze-age technology spread through the Middle East, replacing stone tools with metal. The ox-drawn plow appeared in Mesopotamia around 3000BCE, providing the first motive force beyond human muscle. Ancient Mesopotamia hosted a procession of great civilizations: the Sumerians (3300– 1900BCE) were succeeded by the Akkadians, then the Babylonians, Assyrians, and Per-

sians. The first Sumerian cities differed from earlier village settlements because their surrounding lands were thought to be “owned” by a local god (rather than by families of clans). Priests organized work on the land, which in turn provided food for the whole community. A temple dedicated to the local god was typically the center of the settlement, surrounded by public buildings and marketplaces, and built up on a stepped pyramid, or ziggurat—a kind of cosmic mountain. The priests were at the hub of so- ciety because, on behalf of the gods, they controlled much of a city’s lands and irriga- tion systems, as well as distributing the all-important agricultural surplus. The Sume- rians created the very notion of the state, of law and kingship, while inventing the cal- endar, the wheel, abstract mathematics, timekeeping (with the 60-minute hour), litera- ture (exemplified by the Epic of Gilgamesh, see opposite), and the zodiac.

 

THE CITY AS TEMPLE. Mesopotamian people – from Babylonians to Persians – saw their cities as sacred places. Babylon, the greatest of all Mesopotamian cities, was known as Baby-ilani, or “the Gate of the Gods” – the place where the gods were thought to have descended to earth. In its time, Babylon was also an important center for trade, linking the Persian Gulf with the Mediterranean. Ancient city - Around 570BCE, Babylon was the largest city in the known world, covering more than 2,500 acres (1,000 ha).

 

The city as temple

 

Answer the questions:

When did the first urban settlements appear in Mesopotamia?

What civilizations did change in Mesopotamia?

How did the first Sumerian cities differ from previous settlements?

What was in the center of the ancient Sumerian city?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Urban settlement was driven…

… whole community.

The first Sumerian cities…

… with temples and palaces.

A temple dedicated… cosmic mountain.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about building communities in Mesopotamia.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                    MOVING IDEAS

Were the early Mesopotamian city states, complete with their sacred temple moun- tains, the blueprint for later cities beyond the Middle East— from Egypt to China, In- dia, and the Americas? Certainly, the stepped pyramid form appears in Egypt soon af- ter its development in Sumeria, and it is likely that Sumerian masons and craftsmen did travel to Egypt. But although Egypt produced its own great cities, they never as- sumed the independent identity and dynamism of those in Mesopotamia—partly be- cause the activity in Egyptian cities focused more on serving the royal court than on building civic identity. Accordingly, the most famous monumental architecture of Egypt is dedicated to dead pharaohs, rather than living communities. The Bronze Age (which lasted until around 1200BCE in the Middle East) was a time when people trav- eled freely over surprisingly large distances, spreading trade, myths, and ideas. Some commentators suggest that links between the Old and New Worlds were well estab- lished during this time, explaining the appearance of the stepped pyramid form in Cen- tral America. These notions are highly controversial, but what is certain is that some- thing profound occurred around 3000BCE, changing peoples who subsisted by hunting and gathering, and lived in makeshift homes, into builders of great cities girdled with walls and adorned with temples and palaces. Some claim that this change gives cre- dence to the destruction-and-renewal myth of the Great Flood enshrined in so many cultures; for others it simply marks a shift — no less remarkable — in human con- sciousness.

 

Answer the questions:

Were the early Mesopotamian city states the blueprint for later cities beyond the Middle East (from Egypt to China, India, and the Americas)?

In the architecture of which countries can you see stepped pyramid forms?

Whether Sumerian craftsmen could travel long distances?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Certainly, the stepped pyramid…

… rather than living communities. Accordingly, the most famous monumental…

… spreading trade, myths, and ideas.

These notions are highly… with temples and palaces.

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the moving ideas of the early Mesopotamian city states.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                    ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST (c.5300-350 BCE)

Gods and kings: the architecture of the ancient Middle East is the story, as far as we can see, of these two forces—one divine, one would-be divine. This is largely be- cause the everyday buildings of this period, in which people lived and worked, have long since vanished. What we are left with are the ruins, in various states of decay, of ambitious palaces and temples—the architecture of religion and power. The surviving monuments of ancient Iraq, from ca. 3000BCE, are all built of brick. Stone was largely unavailable, as were the lengths of unyielding timber necessary to span large spaces. The most impressive of the early works of architecture in the ancient Middle East is the Ziggurat of Ur; but the one we would all like to see, if only we could, is the “Tow- er of Babel”—the great ziggurat at Babylon. The base of this temple, measuring 295 ft (90 m) square, does indeed suggest a daringly ambitious structure. Faced with blue- glazed bricks and rising in seven stages, it would have towered over King Nebuchad- nezzar’s legendary palace beside the Euphrates, famous for the Hanging Gardens that cascaded in great perfumed terraces from the top of the building. It is vital to remem- ber that what today are ruins in a war-torn desert were once the raiments of powerful civilizations.

 

Answer the questions:

Have the everyday buildings of that period, in which people lived and worked, left?

What type of architecture has been preserved?

What is the name of the most impressive early piece of architecture in the ancient Near East?

What is a ziggurat?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Gods and kings: the architecture…

… are all built of brick.

The most impressive of the early works of architecture…

… to span large spaces.

Faced with blue-glazed bricks… the top of the building.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of the ancient Middle East.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

                                        A NEW ARCHITECTURAL PROCESS

Eventually, the region was swallowed up by the world’s first great empire, found- ed by Persia’s Cyrus the Great (c.600–530BCE). From this time on, building styles were not only transferred from one city, or kingdom, to another, but they also began to be mingled to produce fusions of styles that pushed architecture down new pathways and into creative risk-taking. Craftsmen from across the Persian empire—Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, and Ionia—joined forces to shape a new architecture that was far more fluid and sensual than that of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyr- ians before them. Lavishly decorated and brightly colored, the Palace of Persepolis, founded in 518BCE, shows just how far architecture had moved from the elementary ziggurats that had introduced humanity to architecture some 2,500 years earlier.

 

Answer the questions:

What was the peculiarity of the new architectural process (c.600-530 BCE)?

What states were part of Persian Empire?

What does the Palace of Darius I in Persepolis, founded in 518 BCE, show?

Complete the sentences from the text:

From this time on…

… before them. Lavishly decorated…

… Persia’s Cyrus the Great.

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the new architectural process.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                     DECORATIVE ELEMENTS

The basic building materials of ancient Middle Eastern architecture were brick and stone. Increasingly, surfaces were adorned, and then covered, in tiles and relief sculpture. Much of this symbolic sculpture was brightly colored and supported by inscriptions. The Palace of Persepolis, begun by Darius I in 518BCE, is the most impressive example of this era.

Wall Reliefs Stairs and terraces in Persepolis are lined with layers of relief carvings, separated from one another by bands of rosettes. The figures depict stately proces- sions of Persian and foreign nobles, chieftains, courtiers, guardsmen, and tribute bearers from across the ancient empire.

Bands of rosettes

Monumental script Babylonian buildings can be read like books. The palace at Nimrud, for example, features reliefs of kings and courtiers superimposed with de- tailed and lengthy inscriptions listing their achievements.

 

Animal statuary Powerfully sculpted heads, wings, beaks, and claws of real and mythical beasts symbolized the power of kings across the region. Carving at the height of the Persian Empire was highly accomplished.

 

Gateway guardians. Enormous winged bulls with bearded human heads were used to flank the entrances to Assyrian and Persian cities and palaces. Design intended to instil fear. Winged bulls used in place of columns.

Hunting scenes

Realistic scenes of lion hunts and of lions attacking weaker animals can be found in Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian palaces. Here—at Persepolis—visitors were left in no doubt as to the characters of the kings they were to meet at the top of the stairs.

Stepped castellations

STAIRCASE TO THE PALACE OF DARIUS I AT PERSEPOLIS, WITH RELIEF SHOWING A LION AND A BULL IN COMBAT, AND SERVANTS CLIMBINGSTEPS TOSERVE AT THE

KING’S TABLE. Carved stone panels attached to the side of the stairway.

 

Answer the questions:

Which were the basic building materials of ancient Middle Eastern architecture?

What was the peculiarity of the relief sculpture of the Palace?

What is depicted on the walls of the stairs and terraces of the Palace?

What lines of the rosettes were used for?

What do the monumental inscriptions of palace buildings tell about?

What did sculptural symbolism express?

Who were gateway guardians?

What do hunting scenes express?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Much of this symbolic sculpture was brightly colored…

… were brick and stone.

The figures depict stately…

… to the side of the stairway.

Enormous winged bulls… and palaces.

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the basic building materials and decorative elements of ancient Middle Eastern architecture.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                               ZIGGURAT OF URNAMMU, UR

( c. 2125BCE , MUQAIYIR, IRAQ, URNAMMU, PLACE OF WORSHIP/CEREMONIAL BUILDING)

In the flat, sun-baked desert of southern Iraq, in what was once ancient Sumeria, lies the biblical city of Ur, home of Abraham and the site of one of the most significant early architectural monuments — the Ziggurat of Urnammu. This imposing structure commanded what was then a great walled city. The Ziggurat stands alone and apart from the extensive remains of the excavated streets and tombs of the city of Ur. Origi- nally it was walled around, at the heart a religious complex, and reached through a grand courtyard. This artificial sacred mountain was once topped by a temple dedicated to the Moon god Nanna, gained by daunting flights of stairs that still survive. When the Ziggurat was remodeled and expanded by Urnammu and his successors in the 21st cen- tury BCE, it was already an extremely old building. It is constructed from mud bricks, the ubiquitous building material of ancient Mesopotamia; each layer is bonded with bi- tumen, and some with matting to improve stability. The outer layer of bricks is baked for sharpness of profile and durability. Urnammu’s monument has survived over the centu- ries, not least because of the ingenuity of its construction: “weeper holes” in the vast mass of brickwork allow the evaporation of water from the mud core, while drainage channels built into the structure carry away rainwater. It remains a tantalizing feature of a landscape fought over almost as long as it has been inhabited.

Ceremonial Stairway

 

 Mighty construction

Only the base remains today, but this mountainous building once had three tiers, and some suggest that each level was planted with trees.

 Urnammu

The powerful third dynasty of Ur was founded by Urnammu, an ancient Sume- rian king who reigned between c. 2113BCE andc. 2096BCE and who built and re- stored many public buildings in Ur, including the great Ziggurat. In a bid for immor- tality, it must be said that Urnammu has done rather well— each of the many indi- vidual bricks used to build this amazing structure, the best preserved of all Mesopo- tamian ziggurats, is stamped with his name.

Ziggurat of Urnammu

 

Answer the questions:

Where is the site of one of the most significant early architectural monuments – the Ziggurat of Urnammu?

What is it constructed from?

How has Urnammu’s monument survived?

What was the most outstanding achievement of the ancient Sumerian king Ur- nammu?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

This imposing structure commanded…

… grand courtyard.

This artificial sacred mountain…

… an extremely old building.

In a bid for immortality… with his name.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the Ziggurat of Urnammu.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                       PALACE OF SARGON

                          (706BCE, KHORSABAD, NORTHERN IRAQ, SARGON II, PALACE)

The palaces of the Assyrian Empire are some of the largest and most imposing an- cient buildings in Mesopotamia, demonstrating the affluence, aspirations, and determi- nation of the fierce military regime that shaped them. Though dramatic, the empire was short-lived, and its kings were clearly in a hurry to build on a heroic scale; the Palace of

Sargon in the city of Khorsabad was almost shoddily built in parts, making use of soft bricks laid on top of one another without mortar. And yet, the overall effect of the archi- tecture would have been overwhelming. Raised on a stone platform at a height level with the top of the city walls, the palace covered almost 23 acres (9 ha). At its heart was a throne room measuring 162 x 35 ft (49 x 10.7 m), crowned with a flat, decorated timber ceiling —luxury in a land where wood was scarce.

Valued materials. The palace was decorated with reliefs showing the transport of precious wood to Khorsabad

 

DUR-SHARRUKIN

Now the settlement of Khorsabad (north of modern Iraq) is located here, where the As- syrians still live. Ancient city. Dur-Sharrukin.

Dur-Sharrukin (Fortress of Sargon) - the capital of Assyria in the last years of the reign of Sargon II. The city was built according to his project in the period from 713 to 707 BC.

e. However, due to the sudden death of the king in battle, construction was stopped, and the capital was moved to Nineveh. At the end of the 7th century BC. e. the city was de- stroyed by the armies of Media. Now the settlement of Khorsabad (north of modern Iraq) is located here, where the Assyrians still live.

 

Answer the questions:

How did the military regime of Assyrian Empire influence the architecture of its palace?

Why was Sargon’s palace built in a hurry, shoddily, without mortar to hold the bricks together?

What materials was the ceiling of Sargon’s palace made of?

What process in the construction of the palace is shown in the picture?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Raised on a stone platform…

… that shaped them.

The city was built according…

… have been overwhelming. Though dramatic… without mortar.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of the palace of Sargon.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                             City Plan

Dur-Sharrukin was a rectangular plan. Built according to a single plan, the city had a shape close to a square in plan, with sides 1780 X 1685 m. and was surrounded by a giant, powerful fortress wall, the height and thickness of which was 23 m, reinforced with but- tresses. The fortress walls at a height of 1.1 m were made of stone, above - masonry of raw brick. Seven gates led to the city, 167 towers were built on the walls, no traces of a moat were found. The cobbled streets of the city were up to 12 meters wide.

 

Left: Plan of Dur-Sharrukin. Right: Palace of King Sargon. Plan

 

In the northern part of the city, on an adobe terrace with an area of 10 hectares, the

citadel dominated the city, where temples, the grandiose royal palace of Sargon II and the houses of his especially close ones were located. Only to create the foundation for a palace of 100,000 square meters. m. was poured (then rammed) approximately 1.5 million cubic meters. m clay. The platform of the citadel, rising to a height of 14 m, was made of raw brick and faced in the lower part with huge blocks of carefully hewn stone (each block weighing up to 14 tons, some blocks are up to 3 m long). The platform masonry is perme- ated with a system of sewage and ventilation ducts. Wide ramps led to the platform, along which chariots could pass. The walls of the buildings in the citadel were built of unbaked bricks, some reaching a thickness of 3 m.

The palace ensemble was notable for its asymmetric layout, which is typical for the adobe architecture of the Ancient Mesopotamia. Separate parts of the palace were located symmetrically, but its location in the courtyard of the citadel was asymmetrical. The pal- ace building half protruded beyond the level of the northern wall of the city.

Rectangular in plan, the palace consisted of three parts - a group of rooms for recep- tions, living quarters of the royal family (and the ruler's harem), utility and office premis- es. In total, the palace had approx. 210 halls and 30 courtyards. The main staircase from the side of the city leads to the main entrance of the royal residence. The most extensive

front yard, located immediately behind the main entrance, united the king's chambers, lux- urious official halls, service rooms and religious buildings. In the western part of the ter- race there was a detached pavilion, possibly the summer dwelling of the king. The office premises of the palace were located on the southeastern part of the terrace, from the side of the city, a long and wide ramp led to this part, along which chariots and wagons with food went up to the terrace.

In the palace of Sargon, arches, false and vaulted vaults are often found. Entrance openings were most often covered with arches, heavy door leaves were upholstered with copper strips. In some cases, the halls were very long (up to 50 m) and high, but relatively narrow, since the Assyrians blocked all the rooms with a brick vault of a small span, rarely exceeding 6 m. The rooms had no windows and were illuminated through doorways and, possibly, through holes in vaults.

On the walls of the interior were found the remains of murals and lining with multi- colored glazed tiles along the bottom. The openings of the interior spaces were also deco- rated with a ribbon of colored glazed tiles. The palace was equipped with a well-arranged drainage system (holes for draining water in the floors of the courtyards, opening into drainage channels inside the bulk terrace), as well as a ventilation system.

In the southwestern part of the terrace there were three small temples and a 40- meter ziggurat surrounded by a spiral ramp. Probably, the ziggurat was seven-tiered, four survived, each approx. 6 m high, Each tier was probably painted in different colors. The ziggurat was moved to the edge of the platform, and it seemed that it crowned the palace ensemble, but did not dominate.

Ziggurat surrounded by a spiral ramp

 

The main portal of the palace, connected to the adjoining part of the city by grand staircases, was a solemn arch (span 4.3 m at a height of 6.46 m), framed by two powerful towers lined with colored glazed tiles from below.

Left: Winged bulls with human heads. Right: The main portal of the palace was a solemn arch

 

At, like sentries, figures of fantastic winged bulls with human heads (reaching 5.6 m in height) carved from monolithic blocks of soft local stone stood like sentries. The Assyr- ians called them "shedu" or "lamassu" and believed that these statues should protect the palace and the sacred person of the king from hostile forces. When looking at the stone gi- ants from the front, only two front legs were visible, and they seemed to be standing mo- tionless. In profile, the figures showed four legs, and then they looked like they were walk- ing. This peculiar effect was created due to the presence of five legs in the sculptures.

Answer the questions:

Why was the city of Dur-Sharrukin surrounded by a giant powerful fortress wall?

Why can the palace be called a citadel?

What is typical for the planning of palace ensembles of adobe architecture in An- cient Mesopotamia?

How many halls and courtyards were in the palace?

How were the rooms illuminated and entrance openings decorated?

What is the peculiarity of the construction of the ziggurat in the palace?

How was the palace protected from excessive moisture?

What were the architectural special features of the main portal of the palace which was connected to the adjacent part of the city?

What function were the winged bulls supposed to perform?

How many legs had winged bulls and what effect did it create?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

The platform of the citadel…

… main entrance of the royal residence. The main staircase…

… as well as a ventilation system. When looking… standing motionless.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of Dur-Sharrukin.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                             ISHTAR GATE

(575BCE, BABYLON,CENTRAL IRAQ, NEBUCHADNEZZAR II, ENTRANCE GATEWA)

One of the eight main entries to the city of Babylon, the Ishtar gate today stands inside the Pergamon Museum, Berlin. The structure was moved from Iraq soon after its discovery in the early 20th century, and a two-thirds scale replica was built at its origi- nal location, commissioned by Saddam Hussein as part of a controversial reconstruction of Babylon. The original battlemented gate guarded the way to the city’s main proces- sional avenue, impressing visitors to Nebuchadnezzar’s court. It is magnificently pat- terned with dragons and lions, worked in low-relief kiln-fired bricks glazed with liquid asphalt. The dragons symbolize Marduk, god of the city and giver of eternal life, while the lions are a symbol of the goddess Ishtar.

Named after the Akkadian goddess, the Ishtar Gate was built in ancient Babylon in 575 BC. But as a wonder of the world and an architectural monument, they were talked about only after many centuries. The name of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, Akkadian mythology and an important period in the development of Babylonia are closely associated with the gate of the goddess Ishtar.

New gate. Today’s replica hints at the craftsmanship of the original gate

 

Named after the Akkadian goddess, the Ishtar Gate was built in ancient Babylon in 575 BC. But as a wonder of the world and an architectural monument, they were talked about only after many centuries. The name of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar, Akkadian mythology and an important period in the development of Babylonia are closely associated with the gate of the goddess Ishtar.

Ishtar Gate - intertwining history and mythology

Under King Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon reached its peak, both cultural and economic. The period of his reign was marked by successful military campaigns, the attraction of slaves - free labor, an increase in material well-being.

Wishing to perpetuate his name, Nebuchadnezzar did not skimp on various architec- tural projects - the gardens of Babylon, the royal palace. The city wall with eight gates was also included to this list. The most famous of them was the gate of the goddess Ishtar. Ish-

tar is the goddess of love, fertility, strife and war. It was believed that she was the wife of the patron of Babylon - the god Marduk. From the gate of Ishtar to the temple of Esagila, dedicated to her husband, the procession road led. The townspeople believed that the main deity of Babylon once a year passes this way. In the New Year, they themselves carried his statues along the Processional Road and the Aibur-Shaba Street that continues it.

 

External view of the gate of the goddess Ishtar

The most famous gate of the city wall of Babylon was double. At the same time, their inner part was almost twice as large as the outer one. The height of the building was 26 m, and the width was about 30 m. The entrance was a semicircular arch. Glazed bricks were used for construction. The main color of the building is bright blue. This gave the gates a special grandeur, immediately highlighting them against the background of yellow sand and gray houses. It was also believed that the blue color symbolizes the goddess Ish- tar. The roof and sashes were made of cedar and edged with bronze. Against the back- ground of bright blue brick, 575 relief images of sacred animals - sirrus and bulls - stood out. In threatening poses, they also decorated the walls along the Processional Road, as they were supposed to “accompany” the gods during the festive procession. The width of the Road was 23 m, the walls along it to a height of 7 m were finished with blue glazed brick.

Gate of the goddess Ishtar, Babylon

 

Secrets of the Ishtar Gate

One of the main mysteries of the Ishtar Gate in Babylon is the components used to create the decorative covering. Until now, there is an opinion that they could not exist in ancient times and were particles of cosmic dust. A few more unanswered questions relate to enamel manufacturing technology. How did the craftsmen manage to maintain the same and high firing temperature of the bricks? How was the amount of dye for them verified with high accuracy? It would take at least 12 hours of firing at a temperature of 1000 °C to obtain bricks with a durable decorative coating. Today, these tasks are handled by quali- fied specialists and “smart” equipment. It's hard to believe that people achieved similar re- sults in 570 BC.

Answer the questions:

Who built the Ishtar Gate and when and what for?

Can the Ishtar Gate be called one of the wonders of the world?

What were the dimensions of the most famous gate of the city wall of Babylon?

What material was used in the construction of the Gate?

What were the roof and sashed manufactured of?

What did the color of the Gate express?

What questions does the technology of making bricks of Ishtar Gate rise?

Which museum in Berlin has a copy of the Babylonian Gate?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

The original battlemented gate…

… glazed with liquid asphalt. But as a wonder of the world…

… year passes this way. The roof and sashes…

In threatening poses… finished with blue glazed brick.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of the Ishtar Gate.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                                BABYLON

                                (562BCE; CENTRAL IRAQ; NEBUCHADNEZZARII; CITY)

At its peak, Babylon covered an area of at least 3.9 sq miles (10 km2), making it by far the biggest city of its time. Set along the Euphrates River, its walls enclosed a densely packed mix of temples, shrines, markets, and houses, divided by grand avenues set at right angles to one another. The city’s legendary Tower of Babel was a seven-tiered ziggurat rising from a base 297 ft (90 m) square. The Hanging Gardens—one of the seven wonders of the ancient world—were built for Nebuchadnezzar’s wife, Amytis.

 

Left: Babylon. Right:Tower of Babel

 

Plan of Babylon VII-VI centuries. BC e. was an elongated quadrilateral with an area of about 10 km2 (Fig. 26). The Euphrates divided it into two parts: the eastern one - the old

city and the western one - the new city, which was essentially a suburb of Babylon and was connected to the old city by a bridge on stone bullocks supporting a wooden span. The most important buildings were located in the old city. The city was criss-crossed by a sys- tem of long, straight streets, the so-called procession roads, which offered magnificent vis- tas. Some residential quarters were also planned, although, as a rule, the development of the territory near the procession roads was spontaneous. Outside, Babylon was surrounded by three defensive walls - the first, 7 m thick, made of raw brick, then at a distance of about 12 m - the second, 7.8 m thick, made of burnt bricks, and a stone wall near the moat,

3.3 m thick, as well as a double inner wall made of raw brick with battlements and eight gates bearing the names of the main gods. The defensive wall also ran along the banks of the Euphrates.

Not far from the temple of Emah, the Southern Palace-Fortress was excavated, ex- panded and decorated under Nebuchadnezzar II. In the northeast corner of the palace, ap- parently, there was a building famous in antiquity, the so-called hanging gardens, ar- ranged, according to legend, by Nebuchadnezzar II for a Mede wife who was not accus- tomed to the flat and treeless landscape of Babylonia. Only the remains - the cellars of the structure - have survived. It was an irregular quadrangle in plan, the northern and eastern parts of which were formed by the outer walls of the palace, but from the south and west it had its own walls, to which a number of identical vaulted rooms adjoined from the inside. In the center was another quadrangle of walls.

The quadrangle of the walls carried the weight of the hanging gardens, the upper part of which, according to the testimony of ancient writers, was at the height of the walls of the palace (about 25 m). The ground part of the building probably consisted of a series of powerful pillars or walls, like the walls of the vaulted chambers that made up the under- ground part. Above the vaults lay large stone slabs, the remains of which were found dur- ing excavations, then layers of brick, bitumen, reed, lead, and finally a thick layer of earth, in which the trees of the hanging garden grew. The garden was irrigated with a water wheel. Hanging gardens were intended for the personal needs of the royal family. As far as can be judged from the descriptions, the builder achieved a certain artistic effect in the synthesis of green spaces and architecture (horizontal rows of arcades bearing gardens). Probably, the vertical perspective familiar to the Babylonians from ziggurats was used here. Landscaped (as suggested by a number of researchers) terraces of some ziggurats could be the forerunners of hanging gardens.

Hanging gardens

Answer the questions:

Which of the seven wonders of the world are in Babylon?

What was the general plan of Babylon?

What walls surrounded Babylon?

How were hanging gardens arranged?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

The city’s legendary Tower of Babel…

… supporting a wooden span.

In the northeast corner of the palace…

…hanging garden grew.

It was an irregular quadrangle… from the inside.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of Babylon.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                                 NIMRUD

                    (859BCE; NEAR MOSUL, NORTHERN IRAQ; ASHURNASIRPAL II; CITY)

Nimrud is the site of the biblical city of Calah. For its day it was an enormous set- tlement: its walls extended 4.7 miles (7.5 km), and its peak population is said to have been 100,000. The city was founded by the Assyrian king Shalmaneser I in the 13th century BCE and was enlarged around 880BCE during the reign of Ashurnasirpal II. Nimrud continued to be a major center until it fell to the invading Babylonians and Medes between 614 and 612BCE. Typically, this Assyrian city boasted a palace set in generous courtyards, complete with a ziggurat and stone relief carvings depicting bloody battles and lion hunting. It was also home to the fascinating Temple of Ezida, built in the 9th century BCE; here was the sanctuary of Nabu, the god of writing. A well in front of Nabu’s sanctuary provided the water that, when mixed with fine clay, produced the writing tablets that were such an important part of life for all Mesopota- mian cultures.

 

Left: Winged statues ("lamassu"). Right: Orthostats

Ashurnasirpal's palace in Kalah. The most significant architectural monument of As- syria was the palace of Ashurnasirpal in Kalah (modern Nimrud). In this palace, built be- tween 884 and 859. to i. e., those methods of combining architecture with sculpture, fine arts and decorative ornamentation are already noticeable, which then reached their highest point of development in Dur-Sharrukin and in Nineveh.

Richly decorated with sculptures, the Kalakh Palace gives an idea of two decorative elements of architecture that are constantly encountered later. These are, firstly, the winged statues of sacred animals described above, geniuses, bulls or lions guarding the en- trances, the so-called "lamassu"; and, secondly, narrative relief orthostats located at the bottom of brick or adobe walls. Characteristic for the Assyro-Mesopotamian, as well as for the Hittite composition, is the placement of the main images and inscriptions at the bottom of the walls, at eye level. Orthostatic slabs, which later became purely decorative, had, with a surface of more than 7 square meters. m, sometimes no more than 20 cm thick. Their origins were clearly constructive; their original purpose was to strengthen and sup- port the masses of broken earth, clay or adobe that made up the terraces or walls of large Assyrian buildings, and to help waterproof the structures.

ORTHOSTAT (from the Greek ὀρϑός - straight, correct and parts of the compound word -στάτης - set, from the verb ί̔ στημι - to set), a stone slab installed vertically. In the ancient architecture of the Near East, Ortostats placed in a row strengthened and lined the lower part of the main walls of a palace or temple building, in Syrian and Hittite buildings of the bit-khilani type from the outside, in Assyrian. palaces - from the inside. Often Ortostats were decorated with monumental reliefs, mostly of cult and symbolic- mythological content.

 

                                                          NINEVEH

                   (700BCE; MOSUL, NORTHERN IRAQ; SENNACHERIB; CITY)

The city of Nineveh, on the eastern bank of the Tigris River, was the final and greatest capital of the Assyrian Empire. It was founded by Nimrod and laid out by Sen- nacherib, son of Sargon II, but like many ancient cities, its heyday was brief: it was overrun and humbled by the Medes and the Babylonians in 612BCE. Containing several palaces and girdled with 7.5 miles (12 km) of walls, it would have been an imposing sight. Impressive stretches of wall survive to this day, some rebuilt by Saddam Hussein. There are also remains of King Sennacherib’s “Palace without a rival”—still decorated with aggressive carved stone reliefs. Many of the best reliefs—including those from King Ashurbanipal’s palace—are now in the British Museum, London. They depict vivid scenes of royal lion hunting and gruesome executions of enemies in the bloody campaigns

fought by the Assyrians against the Elamites: Nineveh, like all Assyrian cities, was pri- marily a machine for making war.

Palaces of Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal. Monuments of the Assyrian construction of the last period have been preserved in Nineveh, an ancient city, especially built up un- der Sennacherib, the son of Sargon. Sennacherib built a grandiose terraced palace in Nine- veh, reaching a height of 30 m. The excavations of the palace, however, yielded less for architectural history than the palace at Dur-Sharrukin. From the palace of the last of the major rulers of Assyria, Ashurbanipal, in Nineveh, reliefs of exceptional artistic interest have been preserved, which are now stored in London. On the whole, however, the art of Ashurbanipal's epoch already testifies to a certain refinement of style and the absence of monumental strength in the buildings of that time. Luxuriousness and overload of detail have here replaced the simplicity and strength that characterize the earlier monuments of Assyria.

Nineveh

 

Bas-reliefs of Nivea, British Museum, London

Answer the questions:

What two decorative architectural elements can be observed in the Kalakh palace, which are constantly found afterwards?

What is an orthostat?

At what level were the orthostats located?

What types of art are combined with architecture in the Kalakh palace?

What characterizes the architecture of the Assyrian construction of the last period?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Richly decorated with sculptures…

… bloody battles and lion hunting. Orthostatic slabs…

….at eye level.

These are, firstly… adobe walls.

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of Nimrud and Nineveh.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                     TEMPLE OF SOLOMON

                        (1000BCE; JERUSALEM, ISRAEL; SOLOMON; PLACE OF WORSHIP)

According to the Old Testament, the temple was built by David’s son, Solomon, to house the Ark of the Covenant—the container of the Ten Commandments. Nothing of the original temple has survived: it was most likely destroyed by the Babylonians in the 6th century BCE. Descriptions in the Bible and archaeological digs suggest a building with an inner sanctum fronted by a courtyard, with both structures surrounded by open courtyards, as seen in the model below.

 

Left: Temple of Solomon. This model, based on the detailed descriptions in the Bible, shows the layout of the great temple. General view. Right: The holy of holies, or davir

 

Temple of Solomon. Jerusalem. 10th century BC. Plan. Reconstruction

1 - external gallery; 2 - sanctuary; 3 - Holy of holies; 4 - the ark of the covenant; 5 - lamps; 6 - pantries; 7 – pillars

Solomon reigned from 1015 to 975. BC e. For seven years, Solomon was engaged in the construction of the temple, for which his father David prepared a large amount of building material. According to the Bible, the portable Tabernacle of Meeting served as a temporary temple after the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt until the construction of the Temple in Jerusalem. The Temple in Jerusalem was a building and in this it differed from the altar and the open sanctuary (bama). In the Temple there were objects symbolizing the presence of God (the ark of the Covenant with the tablets of the Covenant and cherubs), as well as utensils for the priesthood.

According to the Biblical description, the temple was built in the likeness of a taber- nacle, and had a rectangular shape - 60 cubits by 20 cubits, 30 cubits high. The vestibule (courtyard) in front of the temple was 20 x 10 cubits in size, it was fenced with hewn stones, laid in three rows and a row of cedar beams. In the courtyard stood an altar for the sacrifice of animals. The sanctuary was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide. In the sanctuary there was an altar for incense, a table for the showbread and 5 pairs of lamps. The holy of holies, or davir, was built in the form of a cube with an edge of 20 cubits. In the Holy of Holies was the Ark of the Covenant, over which two gilded olive-tree cherubim, 10 cubits high, stretched their wings.

Around the temple side rooms and upper floor rooms were built. The entrance to the second tier was located on the side. There was no exposed stonework inside the temple. The interior of the temple was distinguished by an abundance of gold. The walls of the temple from floor to ceiling were finished with gilded cedar with carvings of flowers, palms and cherubs, the floor was lined with cypress planks. In the upper part of the walls of the sanctuary there were "lattice windows, deaf with slopes", through which a faint light penetrated.

Both the cypress double door to the temple and the olivewood double door to the Holy of Holies were decorated with reliefs depicting cherubs, palm trees and blossoming flow- ers, with gilding applied on top. At the entrance to the temple, Phoenician craftsmen erect- ed two decorative copper pillars topped with capitals in the shape of a lily flower and dec- orated with rows of pomegranate apples. The temple in Jerusalem became the central place of worship for God, although the kingdom of Israel had its own sanctuaries in other cities. In 587, the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem. The magnificent temple was looted and destroyed.

 

Answer the questions:

What was stored in Solomon's temple?

What is davir?

How was the temple decorated from the inside?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Descriptions in the Bible…

… floor rooms were built. The interior of the temple…

… with rows of pomegranate apples. Both the cypress… applied on top.

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of temple of Solomon.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                      CITADEL OF VAN

(c. 800BCE; VAN, EASTERN TURKEY; SARDURI I; FORTRESS)

The remains of the Citadel of Van rise from a rocky outcrop more than 260 ft (80 m) high, offering panoramic views of the surrounding countryside. From around 3,000 years ago, Van was the capital of the kingdom of Urartu, a civilization of which we know little, except that it was an enemy of the Assyrians (as was every other civiliza- tion within reach of their chariots). The base of the citadel was constructed from mas- sive stone blocks, many of which are still firmly in place; the superstructure would have been made of mud bricks, while roofs were either thatched or of timber. The one surviv- ing architectural feature is a powerful stone-built barbican, or fortified gateway, that once protected the entrance to the citadel and its water supply. The internal layout of the citadel was probably along the lines of a densely inhabited castle. There are no remains of a temple, though rock tombs, with niches for lamps, have been found in the walls of the south side of the citadel.

 

The remains of the Citadel of Van

 

From the windows of the fortress you can see the ruins of Tushpa, the ancient Urartian capital of the 9th century BC. A number of similar fortifications were built during the reign of Urartu. They are usually located on the slopes of mountains in present-day Arme- nia, Turkey and Iran. The fortress at different times was owned by the Achaemenids, Ar- menians, Parthians, Romans, Sassanids, Persians, Byzantines, Arabs, Seljuks, Turks and Russians. The ancient fortress of Van is located to the west of the city of Van and to the east of Lake Van in the Van Province of Turkey.

The lower parts of the walls of the Van fortress were built of basalt, the rest was built of raw bricks. Such fortresses were used for defense against local rulers, and not as a de- fense against foreign armies. The ruins of this fortress are located on the street of the mod- ern city of Van, where they support the walls built in the medieval era.

Inscription of Xerxes the Great on the wall of the fortress.

 

Near the fortress, on a flat area of rock, a trilingual inscription of the Persian king Xerx- es the Great, dated to the 5th century BC, is engraved. e. The inscription is in almost per- fect condition and is divided into three columns of 27 lines. The text is written from left to right in Old Persian, Babylonian, and Eamem. This is the only known Achaemenid in- scription outside of Iran.

Answer the questions:

What does in the architecture of the citadel say about its military purpose?

What are the walls and roofs of the citadel made of?

Where were the fortifications located?

For protection from whom were such fortresses used?

What inscription was preserved on the walls of the fortress?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Van was the capital…

… citadel and its water supply. Such fortresses were used…

…was built of raw bricks.

The base of the citadel… thatched or of timber.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of the Citadel of Van.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                     TOMB OF DARIUS I

                         (485BCE; NAQSH-I-RUSTAM, SOUTHERN IRAN; DARIUS I; TOMB)

Carved into a solid cliff face, the tomb of Darius I is inscribed with the achieve- ments, reflections, and beliefs of the great Persian ruler. The finely executed facade of the tomb is 60 ft (18.3 m) wide; high above the ground and facing the rising sun, the en- trance is flanked by four columns supporting an Egyptian-style cornice. The capitals are

of the double-bull type—carved bull heads facing away from one another— character- istic of Persian buildings of this period. The design of the facade seems to be adapted from the south front of Darius’s palace at Persepolis nearby.

Tomb of Darius I

 

DARIUS I (THE KING OF KINGS). By the time of his death in 486BCE, Darius I had extended Empire as far as India and Thrace. He built Persepolis as the showcase of his great empire dedicating it to Ahuramazda, the supreme god of the Persians. Work on the complex’s giant platform began around 518BCE, but the task was not completed until many years later by Artaxerxes I.

Bas-relief of Darius the Great on the Behistun inscription

Answer the questions:

What is the facade of the tomb of Darius I facing?

What surrounds the entrance to the tomb?

What shape are the capitals of the columns?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

The finely executed facade…

… the great Persian ruler. The capitals are …

… at Persepolis nearby.

He built Persepolis…god of the Persians.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of the tomb of Darius I.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                            PALACE COMPLEX OF PERSEPOLIS

                       (480BCE; PERSEPOLIS, SOUTHERN IRAN; DARIUS I; PALACE)

With its imaginatively carved ceremonial stairways and its fabulous Hall of a Hun- dred Columns, this complex must have been among the most thrilling buildings of its time. Its architecture and decoration reflect the design and craftsmanship of the many civ- ilizations and cultures brought—mostly by force—into the orbit of the Persian Empire, and even its remaining ruins retain real visual power. Most ancient buildings represent the culture of one specific civilization; at Persepolis, we begin to see how architectural styles could be fused across civilizations, producing hybrid designs. The palace complex stands on a stone platform measuring 1,518 x 907 ft (460 x 275 m), raised 50 ft (15 m) above ground. Its courtyards and halls, built over decades, were reached by a magnifi- cent stairway that can still be seen today; kings would have ascended the stairway on horseback. The highpoint of the complex was its Hall of a Hundred Columns—an im- posing throne room with brick walls 11 ft (3.4 m) thick and 100 double-bull columns supporting an expansive cedar ceiling. Walls of the principal buildings were lined with stone, those of lesser structures with baked and glazed mud brick. The palace complex was decorated throughout with stone reliefs and wall paintings of nobles, courtiers, trib- ute-bearers, foreign dignitaries, soldiers, and others, creating a vivid and lasting picture of life at the court of one of the ancient world’s most powerful dynasties. When visiting the bleached ruins of Persepolis today, it is easy to forget that the original decorations were incredibly brightly colored—probably lurid to modern observers—and that the palace would have dazzled the eyes of awed ancient visitors.

The fall of Persepolis. The splendor of Persepolis lasted until 330BCE, when it was looted by Alexander the Great. The site was rediscovered in the 17th century.

Left: The ruins of the palace complex at Persepolis.

Right: Hall of a Hundred Columns

 

The palace complex of Persepolis (520-460 BC) was located on a high terrace (450 x 300 m), carved into the rock, in the shape of an irregular rectangle, and was surrounded by a powerful fortress wall. The platform partly consisted of natural rock, partly completed from the side of the valley. The masonry of blocks of gray limestone, a common building material for the buildings of Persepolis, is connected with iron staples, without mortar, and reaches a height of 8-18 m. Initially, the terrace was lined with a wall of unbaked bricks, the parapet was covered with reliefs.

The new capital of the Achaemenid state was founded by King Darius, his successors continued construction. Persepolis is the Greek name for the city, it was originally called Parsa. King Xerxes built a staircase, a propylaea in front of it, and an apadana palace. Ar- taxerxes I built a small palace, Darius II built small propylaea. Artaxerxes II Mnemon (405-395 BC) erected the grandiose Hundred Column Hall. The main two-flight staircase, the two wings of which, diverging at the top, again converged on the upper platform, is lo- cated on the south side of the terrace. Opposite the stairs rose the majestic propylaea erect- ed by Xerxes, the so-called. "Gate of all countries". The Propylaea is a square building (side 24.57 m). There were niches in the walls, built of mud bricks, and three doorways were lined with powerful stone blocks. At the western entrance, high reliefs of two huge bulls were carved in stone, at the eastern one - two giant winged bulls with human heads (up to 5 m high). The ceiling of the hall was supported by 4 columns (17 m high), with bell-shaped bases and capitals in the form of protom animals. The highest - southern - opening (up to 5 m high) led to a vast inner square.

At the end of the square there was a platform (4 m high), to which a double staircase led, decorated with reliefs - strings of Persian soldiers, tributaries of the captured powers. Apadana of Darius - Xerxes stood on the platform, its construction was started by King Darius and completed by Xerxes I. in plan (side 62.5 m). Porticos adjoin the hall from three sides, each with 12 columns (6 in a row). On both sides of the eastern portico rise two massive square towers.

The powerful walls of the apadana (5.6 m) were built of mud bricks, therefore they were poorly preserved. The ceiling of the hall (made of cedar covered with gold leaf) was supported by 36 stone columns (6 in a row, about 18 m high, bases about 2 m wide), of which only 3 have survived. the gaps between the columns creates the impression of a large space, the dematerialization of the load-bearing elements. It is not known how the

interior of the hall was illuminated, perhaps only through light holes between the porticos and the hall. Perhaps the walls of the main hall from the inside were hung with carpets.

The apadana and propylaea columns in Persepolis have flutes, high bell bases and tall capitals. Capitals complex in shape consisted of several parts: the lower part resembles an unblown flower bud with slightly bent petals, the middle part is a vertically standing cross beam in plan, with a fluted surface and double volutes above and below, the upper part is paired protomes of animals (sculptural images of heads two bulls). The shape of the capi- tals and the large distance between the columns indicate that wooden floor beams rested on them.

Two wide openings led into the hall from the north portico, one each from the west and east. The walls of the apadana stairs are lined with stone slabs, covered with relief im- ages. The staircase adjoining the eastern portico led to the square, on the opposite side of which stood the Hall of a Hundred Columns.

 

The palace complex at Persepolis (520-460 BC). Plan:

1 - front staircase; 2 - propylaea of Xerxes; 3 - apadana Darius-Xerxes; 4 - Hundred- Column Hall;5 - tripylon; 6 - the palace of Darius; 7 - the palace of Xerxes; 8 - harem; 9 - security premises

Left: Apadana columns of Darius. Right: Apadana of Darius – Xerxes

 

Ceremonial reception royal hall, the so-called. The hall of one hundred columns, in terms of area and height, was somewhat inferior to the large apadana (length 68 m). A por- tico with 16 columns standing in two rows was built on the northern facade of the hall. On the sides of the portico were two square corner rooms and two sculptures of bulls. 100 columns (10 in a row) towered in the central hall, of which only the bases remained. The walls and columns of the hall were damaged in a fire when the city was besieged by Alex- ander the Great. The walls, built of mud brick, had 2 doorways and 11 niches in each. The ceiling of the hall was light, wooden, while the columns were thin.

The walls and columns lost their materiality in comparison with the size of the interior space of the hall. Perhaps the hall was illuminated through openings in the upper part of the walls. The stone architraves of the doors were decorated with bas-reliefs, the plot of which glorified the king - solemn receptions of the rulers, scenes of royal hunting.

 

The ruins of the palace complex at Persepolis

Left: Propylaea of Xerxes in the Persepolis palace complex. Right: Column capital from Persepolis

 

Behind the front part of the palace complex, on the south side of the terrace, the royal residential palaces were located. The entrance from the front to the residential part of the complex was carried out through the propylaea, the so-called «tripylon». A staircase led to it from the courtyard lying between the large apadana and the Hundred-Column Hall.

In the residential part of the palace complex, the premises are grouped around two large courtyards and one smaller one. The eastern part of the residential complex is occu- pied by a building called "harem". In the center of the building there is a 12-column hall, the entrance to which goes through an 8-column portico, on the opposite side of the hall there is an exit to a rectangular courtyard, the same size as the portico. Behind the court- yard there are identical small halls that occupy the remaining space of the building.

On the western side of the large "harem" courtyard, a staircase descended through propylaea with 4 columns to a second, smaller courtyard. The façade of Xerxes' palace stretched across the entire width of the courtyard - a 12-columned portico. In the center of the palace there was a square hall with 36 columns (6 in a row), which was adjoined by small rooms. On the south side of the palace, a terrace was arranged, from which a beauti- ful view of the entire valley opened. Probably, the ceilings in the palace of Xerxes, col- umns and bases were wooden, because. no remains of them have been found. However, the stone foundations of the columns, as well as the architraves of door and window open- ings, have been preserved.

The palace of King Artaxerxes III adjoined the western wall of the palace of Xerxes. Its 8-pillar hall is shifted to the west of the building, the living quarters are adjacent to it from the east side. The main facade with a 12-column portico overlooks a small courtyard, on the opposite side of which is the palace of Darius.

Darius's palace, the smallest in area, faces south, for which it received the name of the Winter Palace. This is a rectangular room, in the center of which was the main hall with 12 columns (4 in a row), square in plan. The entrance to the palace is decorated with an 8-column portico, on both sides of which stairs were built. Small halls and rooms ad- joined the main hall from three.

The palace complex in Persepolis is distinguished by a regular layout. The buildings were erected along one axis. Probably, a single module was used during its construction.

Answer the questions:

What distinguishes the layout in the palace complex of Persepolis?

What was the highpoint of the complex?

How were the walls of the complex finished?

What was the ceiling of the Hundred Columns Hall made of?

What architectural technique creates a feeling of lightness and airiness in the Hall of the Hundred Columns?

What is characteristic of the style of the palace complex in Persepolis?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

Most ancient buildings represent…

… two sculptures of bulls. Perhaps the hall was illuminated…

… the same size as the portico.

The palace complex was decorated… world’s most powerful dynasties.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of the palace complex of Persepolis.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

 

                                                    PALACE OF CTESIPHON

                    (c. 350 CE; CTESIPHON, CENTRAL IRAQ; CHOSROES I; PALACE)

The Palace of Ctesiphon is one of the late-flowering wonders of Mesopotamian cul- ture. Although built by the Persian kings of the Sassanid dynasty, it is in many ways a summary of the vigor and grand architectural ambitions of the many civilizations of this region. Its most obvious feature—a vast, single-span brick barrel vault—is part of what must have been a truly magnificent open-fronted banqueting hall. This arch (tech- nically a pointed ovoid, a shape typical of Mesopotamia) is an astonishing 121 ft (36.7 m) high and spans 83 ft (25.3 m), rivaling anything built by the Romans. The influence of Rome is very much in evidence throughout the design of the palace: massive walls flanking the central banqueting hall were animated with Roman-style arcading set be- tween pairs of attached columns. The actual building type, however, is very un-Roman: the stupendous banqueting hall was open-ended, forming, in effect, a hugely stylized tent. The east wall of the palace remains; the west and rear walls have collapsed, and, tragically, engineers now fear for the integrity of the arch itself.

The remains of ceiling and wall mosaics made of colored glass, marble and mother-of-

pearl were found. This palace belongs to the reign of Shapur I (3rd century) or Khosrov I Anushirvan (5th century). Probably, residential buildings were located on a platform (125 x 75 m, up to 6 m high) to the south of the palace. Presumably there was a garden in front of the palace.

Arch construction

The largest vault in the ancient world, the impressive arch at Ctesiphon is made of unfired mud bricks.

 

Answer the questions:

What is the most obvious architectural feature of Ctesiphon's palace?

How does the influence of Rome manifest itself in the architectural design of the palace?

What is the actual type of palace building?

What material was the palace mosaic made of?

 

Complete the sentences from the text:

The influence of Rome is very much…

… many civilizations of this region. The east wall of the palace…

… hugely stylized tent.

Its most obvious feature… banqueting hall.

 

Communicating:

Role A: You are a student of architecture and its history. You are at a lecture. Ask ques- tions to the lecturer about the architecture of the Palace of Ctesiphon.

Role B: You are a lecturer teaching history and architecture. You are at a lecture. Answer the student's questions as much as you know about it.

СПИСОК ИСПОЛЬЗОВАННЫХ ИСТОЧНИКОВ:

 

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